Pluralism

Opposite to Marxism/hegemony in that there is no mass culture. Control of the media is said to be in the hands of the elite but they allow a considerable degree of flexibility in production choices. As a growing media literate audience we are able to choose selectively what we consume thus it is an active audience theory. It also acts as a fourth estate by safegaurding the public for example, exposing corruption.

Effects theory

This theory was created by the Frankfurt School at the height of Nazi Germany when the media was often used to advocate propoganda. For these reasons they believe the audience is injected by ideology to suit the capitalist system for example, buying clothes which we believe are a fashion statement. A dominant culture is also produced by the media itself to maintain social control. An example of how the media has the ability to inject ideologies into a passive audience is Triumph of the Will by Leni Reifenstahl.
'Cultivation theory' repetiton of a genre or conventions cause audiences to become 'desensitised' especially as social attitudes and expectations change so rapidly.

Reception theory

This theory concentrates on how we attach different meanings to different texts depending on context such the mood someone is in. We decode texts and interpret them in different ways. David Morley discusses how the media is all around us - 'the politics of the media.'

Whereas Pluralism looks at why we consume the media we do, reception theory looks at how we do this. Nevertheless, they are still both active audience theories by giving power to the audiences, whereas effects theory denies this due to the sheer power the media has over us.

Laura Mulvey: male gaze

Laura Mulvey used the ideas of Jacques Lacan (rewrote Freud) to argue that 'classic realist' films - classic Hollywood narrative - are inevitable in constructing the spectator as a male. Significantly, the majority of films have a male 'hero'/ protagonist and consist of women who were merely there to be sexually objectified, who are not allowed to desiring sexual subjects themselves. "Men do the looking; women are there to be looked at." She argued that there are two modes of looking..voyeuristic and fethishictic. Both which generally reveal the male 'castration anxiety' (which is unconscious).

The 'male gaze' theory is a coherent explanation for the dominating subordinate female roles in films, yet attitudes to women have changed and although film has not been so quick to reflect these films such as Alien and Tomb Raider have. It also assumes a passive audience (similar to effects theory) and is essentialist- treating the spectator as only male and hetrosexual.

Pluralism- expressed via TV scheduling?

BBC1- 10 o'clock news
BBC2- Have i got news for you
ITV- I'm a celebrity get me out of here
Channel 4- Without a trace
Five- Tripping over

The above scheduling for monday night clearly has pluralistic values; there's something for everyone. "There is no hegemonic message to be conveyed through all media texts"
The BBC being a PSB is routinely airing the news which is a 'neutral' reportage of current affairs whilst on BBC2 you have the popular news quiz which is also topical but in a humourous way, perhaps getting away from the stereotype that the BBC are boring and uninventive. ITV are doing their annual reality TV show which is without a doubt really popular and is talked a lot about in the tabloid press. However this can be seen as part of 'low culture' whilst the BBC airs 'high culture' texts. It is also interesting how both Channel 4 and Five were showing american drama series. Is this american cultural imperialism or simply reflecting the audience's needs who wish to consume american media texts?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YRlGQvOxDwI (Shake n Vac 1979)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SSwyncna1Qg (Girls lynx ad)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHE25VdGcZI (Nikewomen advert- Sofia Boutella)

Marxism

Based on the works of Karl Marx who developed a critque of society which was both scientific and revolutionary (Das Kapital).

Ideologies: socialism would supersede capitalism which makes profit at the expense of exploited workers (proletariat or do not own the means of production). The bourgeioisie, who own the means of production employ the proletriat.

Marxism and the media: the media maintains social divides/status quo. 'Culture industries' dumb down their output in order to generate mass audiences. It enterains audiences (workers) by subconsiously reaffirming hegemony and capitalist ideology.

Althusser: Ideological state appatratus to maintain bourgeois ideologies i.e religion and education and how they operate to interpellate audiences (presuming ideologies are correct)

Gramsci: hegemony is unquestionned and taken for granted; ruling classes can ensure that they retain hegemonic control.

Williams: rejected 'mass culture' as if it is 'low culture' and 'high culture' i.e. ballet and opera.

Marxist evaluation: Modern/neo-marxists often propose a more realistic interpretation of marxism in the media than classical marxists, yet none of them attempt to explain how these theories can be implemented. I do think there is more of a class consciousness than marxists assume..it's all a bit too deterministic when much of the 'mass audience' is media literate. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that many if not most of media corporations are owned by the ruling class so it is in their interests to maintain hegemony which can provide a sound explanation for why the working class remain working class (despite the small amount of social mobility).